TASK
NAME: Bahtiar B. S.
NIM: 3105211010
Prodi: Computer Systems
[OPERATING SYSTEM TASK]
Windows and LINUX Differences and Difference Equations and Its Commands - commands basically.
About the Command Line
Just as when you type a command at the DOS command line or command line in Linux is also typed at the prompt and terminated by pressing the Enter key on keyboarduntuk execute the command.
The command line is a more efficient way to do any work. Therefore Linux users still rely on this method to work. We recommend that beginners should know and at least once using this command line because someday the knowledge of these commands can be very necessary.
The following will explain some basic commands that may later be frequently used, especially by the beginner. Attention: knowledge of other commands that will soon grow in line with the progress you've mastered this Linux operating system.
An explanation of each command will be shortened course and to find out more detail the functions of a command, you can view the manual, for example by typing man command:
man is the command to display the manual of a command. The way to use it is to type man followed by the command we want to know the manual use.
Example:
$ Man ls
The above command is used to show how to use the ls command is complete.
Basic Linux Commands
As your guide, here's a list in alphabetical order. Actually, you can just hit tab twice to see all the possible commands that can be used. Suppose you want to know any command that begins with the letter a, then you just type a and press tab twice!
According to the Alphabetical List of Commands
& Adduser alias bg cd cat chgrp chmod chown cp fg find grep gzip hostname halt kill less login logout ls man mesg mkdir more mount mv pwd rm rmdir shutdown passwd su umount unalias tail talk tar unzip WHO xhost + xset wall zip
&
Command & is used to execute commands on the back (background) Example:
wget http://id.wikibooks.org &
Command & used behind other commands to run in the background. What is a street in the background? Road dibackground intention is we allow the system to execute commands on their own without our participation, and free up shell / command prompt can be used to run other commands.
See also:
Please see also bg and fg commands.
adduser
Adduser command is used to add users.
Usually only performed by the root user or an account to add a new reply. After this command can be continued with the passwd command, the command to create a password for that user. Example:
# Adduser vicky
# # Passwd anakkota
Note that all commands that require root access, here I have written to using the # sign, to help you distinguish commands that do not need root access.
If you run the adduser command, you will be prompted to enter a password for the user that you create. Fill in the password for the new user twice with the same word.
alias
Used to give another name of a command. Aliases are used to facilitate order not to have to type a long command, but simply aliases only.
For example if you want the ls command can also be run by typing dir command, then create the following alias:
$ Alias dir = ls
If you like the look of a colorful, try experimenting with the following command:
$ Alias dir = "ls-al - color: always"
To see any commands that have a different name then, simply type the alias alone (without arguments). See also the unalias command.
apt-cache
To find an application that has been downloaded by apt-get.
$ Apt-cache search apache2
apt-get
To install or uninstall applications on linux, most families who use the debian linux and its derivatives. Examples of applications to install apache:
$ Apt-get install apache2
To check for updates of the application is installed on linux.
$ Apt-get update
To update the application on linux, usually used after apt-get update.
$ Apt-get upgrade
bg
To maminta a process that is stopped temporarily (suspend) to run in the background. Suppose you're running a command in the foreground (without ending the command &) and a shell when you need it then you can suspend command by typing Ctrl-Z and then bg command to menjalakannya in the background. This way you have freed the command shell but retaining the long-running in the background.
See also the fg command.
paint
Displays the contents of a file on the screen. Example:
$ Cat / name / a / file
CD
[Ubuntu @ fujitsu ubuntu] $ cd / usr/X11R6/bin [ubuntu @ ubuntu fujitsu bin] $ pwd
chgrp
This command is used to change the group ownership of files or directories. For example to give permission to the group or groups in order to access a file. The syntax of writing is as follows:
# Chgrp <grup baru="">
=== === chmod Used to add and subtract permit users to access files or directories. You can use the numeric coding system or the letter coding system. There are three types of permissions / licenses that can be changed as follows:
1. r for read,
2. w for write, and
3. x for execute.
By using a letter coding, you can change the permissions on the above for each u (user), g (group), o (other) and a (all) by simply giving a plus sign (+) to add a license and a minus sign (-) to revoke the permit.
For example to give read and execute permission to the file owner and group coba1, the command is:
$ Chmod ug + rx coba1
To revoke these licenses:
$ Chmod ug-rx coba1
By using a numeric coding system, the permissions for user, group, and the other is determined by using a combination of numbers, 4, 2 and 1, where 4 (read), 2 (write) and 1 (execute).
For example to give permission to read (4), write (2) and execution (1) file coba2 the owner, the command is:
$ Chmod 700 coba2
testing a try
$ Chmod 644 coba3
Caution: If you are hosting on Linux based servers, this command is very important for the security of your data. I recommend all the directories that do not need to write in chmod 100 (if Apache path as the current user (you)) or on the road chmod 501 if Apache as www-data or nobody (other users).
chown
Changing the user ID (owner) of a file or directory
$ Chown <user id=""> <file>
cp
To copy a file or copy. For example to copy file1 to file2:
$ Cp <file1> <file2>
fg
Restoring a process that is stopped temporarily (suspend) to run again in the foreground. See also the bg command above.
find
To find where the location of a file. This command will find files in accordance with the criteria you specify. The syntax is the command itself followed by the name of the initial directory search, then the file name (can use wildcards, metacharacters), and finally determine how the search results will be displayed. For example to search for all files ending in. Doc in the current directory and display the results on screen:
$ Find. -Name *. doc-print
Example results:
. / Public / docs / account.doc
. / Public / docs / balance.doc
. / Public / docs / statistics / prospek.doc
. / Public / docs / statistics / presconf.doc
grep
Global regular expresion are parse or grep command to search for files containing text with the criteria you specified.
Format command:
$ Grep <teks> <file>
For example to search the files that contain marginal text in the current directory:
$ Grep marginal <file>
diferent.doc: Note: The words are widely deployed in the marginal economics prob.rtf: the function of the marginal and marginal cost function if the function prob.rtf: if the marginal cost and marginal result is known then the total cost
gzip
This is version GNU zip compression software, its function is to compress a file. The syntax is very simple:
$ Gzip <namafile>
Nevertheless you can give certain parameters if you need a better file compression, please see the manual page. See also the tar file, unzip and zip.
halt
This command can only be run by super useratau You must be logged in as root. This command to tell the kernel to turn off or shutdown the system.
hostname
To display the host or domain name system and can also be used to mengesset system host name.
Example of use:
[User @ localhost mydirectoryname] $ hostname
localhost.localdomain
kill
This command will send a signal to a process that we specify. The goal is to stop the process. Writing format:
$ Kill <sinyal> <pid>
PID is the process number that will be stopped. Do not know the PID process which would be killed? Try experimenting with the command:
ps aux | grep <myusername>
less
Functions such as command more.
Log === ===
To get into the system by entering a login ID or can also be used to switch from one user to another user.
logout
To exit the system.
ls
Displays the contents of a directory as the dir command in DOS. You can use several options are provided to adjust the zoom on the screen. When you execute this command without any option will be displayed throughout the nonhidden files (files without the leading dot) in the alphabet and a wide screen fill in the fields. Option-la means to display all files / all including hidden files (files with the prefix a dot) with the long format.
man
To display the manual page or text that explains in detail how to use a command. This command is useful if you occasionally forget or do not know the functions and how to use a command.
$ Man <perintah>
To exit the man page, press the "q"
mesg
This command is used by the user to give permission to another user terminal displays a message on the screen. For example you are in a position mesg y then other users can display a message on your screen to write or talk.
$ Mesg y or mesg n
Use mesg n if you do not want to be bothered with the view messages from other users.
mkdir
Creating a new directory, the same as in DOS md command. a
Example: mkdir name> folder> then enter
$ Mkdir students
more
Mempaging pages, as well as less
mount
This command will mount the filesystem to a directory or mount-point specified. Only the superuser can run this command. To see what filesystems mount-pointnya and then, type the command mount. This command can you learn in the chapter on the filesystem. See also the umount command.
$ Mount
/ Dev/hda3 on / type ext2 (rw)
none on / proc type proc (rw)
/ Dev/hda1 on / dos type vfat (rw)
/ Dev/hda4 on / usr type ext2 (rw)
none on / dev / pts type devpts (rw, mode = 0622)
mv
To move files from one location to another. If the second argument of a directory then mv will move files to that directory. If the second argument of the file then the first file name will overwrite the second file. Errors will occur if you enter more than two arguments except the last argument in the form of a directory.
nano
One editor in linux, like notepad in windows. Example to edit a file.
$ Nano / etc / apt / sources.list
When finished for the save use ctrl + o and to exit using ctrl + x
passwd
Used to change the password. You will always be asked to fill in your old password and then be asked to fill in the new password twice. Password consisting of at least six characters and contain at least one character.
pwd
Print working directory, or to display the name of the directory where your if it is currently located.
rm
To delete a file and by default, rm does not remove the directory. Use with caution, especially with this command option-r which can recursively delete a whole file.
Once again: Be careful with this command!
rmdir
To delete an empty directory.
scp
To copy files from one host to another. example buku.txt send files from host 192.168.1.1 with user me.
Aku@192.168.1.1 $ scp: / home / buku.txt / home /
shutdown
This command to shut down the system, such as the halt command. On some systems you can stop the computer with the command shutdown-h now and restart the system with the command shutdown-r now or in combination with the Ctr-Alt-Del ..
su
To login as another user temporarily. If the user ID is not included then the computer assumes you want to log in temporarily as a super user or root. If you are not root and another user has a password then you must enter the password correctly. But if you are root then you can login as another user without that user knowing the password.
tail
Displaying 10 lines of a file. Default line shown is 10 but you can decide yourself how many rows you want displayed:
$ Tail <jumlah baris=""> <file ....="" file="">
talk
To hold a conversation through a terminal. Input from the terminal you are copied on other user terminals, and vice versa.
tar
Store and extract files from media such as tape drives or hard disk. Archive file is often referred to as tar files. Syntax as follows:
$ Tar <aksi> <option> <file direktori="" or="">
Example:
$ Tar-czvf namaFile.tar.gz / name / directory / *
The above command is used to include all the contents of the directory, and then compressed with tar and then in a zip format with gzip, so as to produce a file named namaFile.tar.gz
$ Tar-xzvf namaFile.tar.gz
The above command to extract the files namaFile.tar.gz
umount
Is the reverse of the mount command, which is to unmount the filesystem from the mount-pointnya. After this command is run directory into mount-point is no longer useable.
# Umount <filesystem>
unalias
The opposite of the alias command, this command will cancel an alias. So to cancel the alias dir as has been exemplified above, use the command:
$ Unalias dir
unzip
Used to extract or decipher the files compressed with zip. Simpler syntax and will extract the files you specify:
$ Unzip <namafile>
See also the commands gzip and unzip.
wall
Transmit and communicate the message content and display it in each user terminal that is being logged. This command is useful for the superuser or root to give a warning to all users, for example, notice that the server will shut down shortly.
# Dear wall, everyone ..... Sorry I'm Feeling Angry, I turn off the server will be 10 minutes longer.
WHO
To show who's logged in and active / currently running programs. This command will display information about the login name, terminal type, login time and remote hostname for each user who was logged. For example:
$ WHO
ttyp0 root May 22 11:44
Flory ttyp2 May 22 11:59
pooh ttyp3 May 22 12:08
xhost +
This command is used to grant access or remove access (xhost -) host or individual user to a server X.
xset
This command is to set some options in the X Window as a bell, mouse speed, fonts, screen saver parameters and so on. For example the sound of the bell and the speed of your mouse can be set using this command:
$ Xset b <volume> <frekuensi> <durasi in="" milidetik="">
$ Xset m <akselerasi> <threshold>
zip
This command will create and add files into a zip archive file. See also command gzip and unzip.
DOS commands
DOS commands are commands that can be run in the [operating system]] DOS. In the DOS operating system, there are two types of orders, namely:
internal command (internal command), ie commands that have been incorporated into the COMMAND.COM (DOS command interpreter), so it can be directly executed by the DOS kernel, anywhere.
external command (external command), ie commands that are not included in COMMAND.COM, and requires an executable file (a DOS program) to be contained in the active directory.
The following table lists the commands contained in the MS-DOS.
Type command command Specification
BREAK Sets Internal checks of key presses Ctrl + C or foil.
Internal CD atauCHDIR Changing current directory to another directory specified in the parameter. If executed with no parameters, then this command will display the location where the directory is on.
CHCP Internal If run without parameters, this command will display the code page (character set) in the form of figures that are being used. This command can also be used to change the code page for all devices that support the turn of a collection of characters.
CLS Internal Cleaning the screen and place the cursor at the left corner of the screen. This command has no parameters.
Internal COPY Copy one or more files from one location to another are determined. This command has two parameters, namely the parameters of the source file and destination to which files will be copied.
Internal CTTY This command will replace the terminal device (terminal device / tty) used to control the computer.
Internal DATE This command will display the current date. This command also can set the computer date.
Internal atauERASE DEL Deleting files specified in the parameter. Parameters can be either file or multiple file names compiled using wildcard characters.
DIR Internal If used without parameters, this command can display a list of the files and subdirectories contained in the active directory. This file has one parameter, namely the location of the directory where you want to display a list of directory contents.
EXIT Exit from the shell COMMAND.COM Internal secondary and back again to the primary COMMAND.COM.
Internal atauLOADHIGH LH Load a program into upper memory blocks.
Internal LOCK command is to allow direct access to your hard disk. This command is only available to the MS-DOS in Windows 95/98.
MKDIRatau MD Internal Create a directory in the active directory.
Internal PATH Specifies where the MS-DOS should look for files that can be executed as a program.
Internal PROMPT Change the MS-DOS command prompt.
Internal RD RMDIRatau Deleting an empty directory. Will fail if the directory contains files or other subdirectories. Use an external command to delete a total DELTREEuntuk a directory tree.
Internal atauRENAME REN Rename one or multiple files (with wildcard characters).
Internal SET Displays, delete or set environment variables. Generally, this command is inserted into the AUTOEXEC.BAT file.
Internal TIME Displays or sets the current time.
Internal TYPE Displays the contents of a file (in text form) into the standard output.
UNLOCK disables access internal hard disk directly. This command is only available to the MS-DOS in Windows 95/98.
VER Displays the internal version of the operating system used.
Telling internal VERIFY operating system in order to verify that the files are written to the storage medium has been perfectly written, and displays the status verification. This command is by default turned on by the MS-DOS.
Internal VOL Displays the name of the label of a volume or partition.
SOME SIMILARITIES BETWEEN FUNCTION COMMANDS DOS (WINDOWS) AND TEXT (LINUX)
No. Linux Windows Description
1 ls-l dir name> direktori> Viewing the contents of the directory
2 Change directory cd cd
3 rm-r Removes directories rmdir or rd
4 mkdir Make a directory mkdir or md
5 Cp Copying copy files
6 Pwd chdir Displays the current directory location
7 Rm del Delete a file
8 Cat type Displays the contents of the file in ASCII form to the screen
9 Mv rename or move Renaming files
10 grep find Find word in file
11 man-help namaperintah or namaperintah namaperintah help or /? Displays the help menu
Cls Clear the screen Clean 12
13 Replace filename by adding a dot in front
(. Filename) attrib + h filename (or attrib-h filename to bring up
Hiding files back
14 Date Indicates the date or time
15 vi or emacs filename filename or edit filename pico filename Editing files
16 route-n netstat-r or route print Displays the routing-table
17 traceroute tracert alamatIP alamatIP Perform trace to a destination host in the network
18 ping ping alamatIP alamatIP Sending ICMP packets
19 traceroute tracert alamatIP alamatIP Perform trace to a destination host in the network
20 uname-a ver Displays the operating system version
21 Ifconfig ipconfig (Windows NT) winipcfg (Windows 95x) Displays the configuration of the network card (NIC)
DOS Linux Explanation
Ln assign Create a file or directory link
<command></command> /? man <command></command> Help about the command
break on ctrl-break Trap Trap / Trap signals
Change directory cd cd
Display Pwd chdir directory location
cls Clear screen Clear
Cp copy Copy a file
Date date Displays or sets the date
Rm del Deletes one or more files
ls dir Displays a list of files and subdirectories in a directory
DOS Linux Explanation
DOSKEY / h List command history history history
echo echo Displays messages, or turns command-echoing on or off
vim edit (or other editor) Editor to edit files
exit exit Exit the command prompt
fc diff compare two files and show differences
find grep Searches for a text string in a file or files
mke2fs format Formats a disk or mformat
Look for grep find a word in files given in command line
Print hostname hostname host name of the computer
Display ifconfig ipconfig / configure network interfaces
free mem Displays the amount of used and free memory in your system
mkdir mkdir Create a Directory
more events more or less Displays output one screen at a time
mv move Moves files and renames files and directories
ping ping Send packets to a network host
route print route-n Print the routing table
reboot shutdown-r now Reboot System
ren mv renames a file or files
set set or env List all environment variables
tracert traceroute Show routes and router hops to given network destination
time date Displays or sets the system time
ps-aux tasklist top Top List executable name, process ID number and memory usage of active processes
paint type Dump contents of a file to users screen
Uname-a ver Operating system / shell version
startx win Start X-windows
xcopy cp-R Copy all files of directory recursively
OVERVIEW OF THIS DIFFERENCE OF WINDOWS AND LINUX
Microsoft Windows or better known as Windows is a family of operating systems. olehMicrosoft developed, using a graphical user interface.
Windows operating systems have evolved from the MS-DOS, an operating system based on text mode and command-line. The first version of Windows, Windows Graphic Environment 1.0 was first introduced on 10 November 1983, but only out of the market in November 1985, which was made to meet the computer needs to display a picture. Windows 1.0 is 16-bit software (not an operating system) that runs on MS-DOS (and some variants of the MS-DOS), so he will not be able to run without a DOS operating system. Version 2.x, 3.x versions of the same. Some versions of Windows (starting from version 4.0 and Windows NT 3.1) is an independent operating system that no longer depend on the operating system MS-DOS. Microsoft Windows and can be developed and can be controlled using the operating system up to 90%
A Brief History of Windows
Starting from DosShell for Microsoft's DOS 6 and Microsoft wanted to compete against the best-selling Apple Macintosh that uses a GUI, Microsoft created Windows 1.0. The name is derived from the Microsoft employees who call the name of the application as a Windows program (Windows Program). Windows version 2 is the first Windows versions can install the program. The only program that can be added is a Microsoft Word version 1. Windows version 3 promises more additional applications, completeness of use, beauty of the user interface or interface and easy configuration. Windows version 3.1 is the version of Windows that can optimize its use in the processor 32-bit Intel 80386 and above. Windows Version 3.11 is the last version of Windows before the era of the Start Menu. Windows 3.11 was the first Windows version that supports networking / network. Hybrid version can be run without MS-DOS. The hybrid version is installed itself with DOS 7. Unlike the 16-bit Windows version which is a shell which must be installed through DOS first. Application is different. Although Windows 9X can run 16-bit Windows applications, but Windows 9X has a grade applications themselves - X86-32, Windows 9X is very popular with the BSOD (Blue Screen of Death).
LINUX
Linux (pronounced lɪnəks or / lɪnʊks /) is the name given to the Unix computer operating system. Linux is one example of the development of free software and open source key. Like the free software and other open source in general, Linux source code can be modified, used and redistributed freely by anyone.
The name "Linux" comes from the name of the author, which was introduced in 1991 by Linus Torvalds. The system, equipment danpustakanya systems generally come from the GNU operating system, which was announced in 1983 by Richard Stallman. The GNU contribution is the basis of the alternative name GNU / Linux.
Linux has long been known for its use in servers, and backed by leading computer companies like Intel, Dell, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Novell, Oracle Corporation, Red Hat, and Sun Microsystems. Linux is used as the operating system on various types of computer hardware, including desktop computers, supercomputers, [4], and Embedded systems such as electronic book readers, video game systems (PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3 and XBox [5]), mobile phones and routers. Analysts believe the success of information technology Linux because Linux does not depend on the vendor (vendor independence), low operating cost, and high compatibility compared to the UNIX version is not free, as well as the safety factor and high stability compared to other operating systems like Microsoft Windows. These characteristics are also a testament to the excellence model of open source software development (open source software).
Linux operating system known as Linux distribution (Linux distribution) or Linux distributions generally include a device-support software such as web servers, programming languages, databases, desktop display (desktop environment) sepertiGNOME, KDE and Xfce also has a package of office applications ( office suite), such as OpenOffice.org, KOffice, Abiword, Gnumeric danLibreOffice.
History
Richard Stallman, founder of the GNU project, and Linus Torvalds, the maker of the Linux kernel
Unix operating system developed and implemented in the 1960's and was first released in 1970. Availability and compatibility factors that cause high can be used, copied and modified extensively by academic institutions and the businessman.
Linux logo
Linux Logo (Tux) began when Linus Torvalds was a walk in the park Perth. As I was walking it was Linus Torvalds in the stakes by Penguin scores and fever for days. He thinks that the character penguin suited to become the logo of its new operating system. Then held a competition to design a new logo Linux, and the competition was won by Larry Ewing who successfully depicts a penguin who is sitting.
The GNU Project
The GNU project which began in 1984 has the objective to create an operating system compatible with Unix and completely and totally made up of free software. In 1985, Richard Stallman founded the Free Software Foundation and developed the GNU General Public License (GNU General Public License or GNU GPL). Most programs required by an operating system (such as libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell and window system) were completed in the early 1990's, although low level elements such as device drivers, and kernel jurik still unfinished at the time . Linus Torvalds once said that if the GNU kernel was available at that time (1991), he would not have decided to write his own.
MINIX
MINIX, a Unix-like system intended for academic use was released by Andrew S. Tanenbaum in 1987. MINIX 1.0 source code contained in bukunyaOperating Systems: Design and Implementation. Although it can be easily obtained, modification and redistribution is not allowed at the time. The copyright of the source code is included in the copyright of his book, published by Prentice Hall. In addition, the design of 16-bit versions of MINIX then not well adapted to the 32-bit version of the Intel 386 architecture is cheap and popular which is widely used in personal computers.
In 1991, Torvalds began to work to make non-commercial versions of MINIX replacement when he studied at the University of Helsinki. The results of that job which then would menjadikernel Linux.
In 1992, Tanembaum write an article on Usenet, claiming that Linux was obsolete. In his article, he criticizes Linux as an operating system with the design of monolithic and too fixated with the x86 architecture so as not to be portable, in which he describes as a "fundamental mistake". Tanenbaum suggested that those who want a modern operating system should look to a design that based on the microkernel model. The article emphasizes the responsibility of Torvalds led to a debate about the design of a monolithic kernel and microkernel.
Today Linux has been used in various domains, from the Embedded system [11] to supercomputers, and has had a secure position in the installation of a web server with LAMP application of her popular. Linux kernel development was followed by Torvalds, while Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which supports the development of GNU components. In addition, many individuals and companies who develop non-GNU components. Communities combine and distribute the Linux kernel, GNU components and non-GNU software package management in Linux distributions.
Pronunciation
In 1992, Torvalds explained how he spelled the word Linux:
"'Li' is spelled with the sound [ee] short, 'nux' too short, non-diphthong, as in put. Linux is just a working name for something, and because I wrote it to replace minix on my system, the result is what it is ... Linus' minix became linux. "
Torvalds made an example of how sound audio that contains the spelling in English and Swedish. However, an interview of the year 2001Revolution OS documentation indicates that the way the spelling slightly changed.
In English, many people tend to spell Linux as [lɪnʊks] or [lɪnəks].
Design
Linux is a modular Unix-like operating system. Linux has a lot of design derived from the basic design of Unix was developed in the period of the 1970s until the 1980s. Linux uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel which handles process control, networking, peripherals and accessing the file system. Device drivers are integrated into the kernel.
Many high-level functions in Linux are handled by separate projects which integrate with the kernel. The GNU userland is an important part of the Linux system that provides a shell and equipment that handles many of the basic functions of the operating system. Above the kernel, these devices form a complete Linux system with a graphical user interface that can be used, typically runs on top of X Window System.
User interface
Linux can be controlled by one or more command-line interface (command line interface or CLI)-based text, graphical user interfaces (graphical user interface or GUI, which is generally a default configuration for the desktop version).
On the desktop, GNOME, KDE and Xfce are the most popular user interface, although there are a number of variants of the user interface. The most popular user interfaces run on top of X Window System (X), which provides network transparency memperolehkan a graphical application running on one machine but displayed and controlled on other machines.
GUI others have X window managers such as FVWM, Enlightenment, Fluxbox, IceWM and Window Maker. Manager window provides controls for the placement and appearance of individual application windows as well as interaction with the X window system
A Linux system typically provides a command line interface via a shell, which is a traditional way to interact with a Unix system. A Linux distribution specialized for servers environment may have only CLI as their only interface. A system that does not have a monitor can only be controlled via the command line via protocols such as SSH or telnet.
Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU Userland, use the CLI exclusively. CLI suitable for use in automation environments repetitive tasks or delayed, and provides inter-process communication is very simple. A graphical terminal emulator program is often used to access the CLI from a Linux desktop.
Development
A summary of the history of the operating system-type operating system Linux Unixmenunjukkan origin. Consider the concept and design despite having the same architecture, Linux does not have the source code that is not free as well as Unix or Minix.
The main difference between Linux and other popular operating systems lies in the Linux kernel and its components are free danterbuka. Linux is not the only operating system in that category, however Linux is the best example and most used. Some free software licenses and open source based on the principles of copyleft, a concept that embraces the principle of: works produced from the copyleft must be also a copyleft. Free software license is the most common, the GNU GPL, is a form of copyleft, and is used by the Linux kernel and the components from the GNU project.
Linux system is closely related to standards POSIX, SUS, ISO and ANSI. However, new Linux-FT distribution are POSIX.1 certified.
Projects free software, although developed in the form of collaboration, often released separately. However, because the license-free software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, there are projects that aim to collect software-the software and making it available at the same time in a form called Linux distributions.
A Linux distribution, commonly called a "distro", is a project that aims to organize a collection of Linux-based software and facilitate the installation of a Linux operating system. Linux distributions are handled by individuals, teams, volunteer organizations and commercial entities. Linux distributions have a system and application software in the form of packages and software that is specifically designed for installation and system configuration. The software is also responsible for updating the package. A Linux Distribution is responsible for the default configuration, security systems and integration in general of the software packages of Linux systems.
Community
A command line session menggunakanbash.
Linux is controlled by the developer and user community. Some vendors develop and fund their own distribution with a voluntary basis. Debian is a good example. The other has a community version of the commercial version as yangRed Hat did with Fedora.
In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux Users Groups (Linux Users Group or LUG) promote Linux by holding meetings, demonstrations, training, technical support and installation of the Linux operating system for free. There are also many Internet communities that provide support to developers and users of Linux. Many projects and distribution of open source software that has a room or newsgroup IRC conversation. Online forums are another form to get support, for example: LinuxQuestions.org and the Gentoo forums. Linux distributions have a mailing list with the division of topics such as the use or development.
There are several web sites that berfokuskan technology to Linux. Linux Weekly News is a weekly digestion of the news related to Linux. Meanwhile, Linux Journal is an online magazine of Linux are released every month. Slashdot is a news web sites related to technology that has a lot of news about Linux and free software. Groklaw has in-depth news about the progress of Linux and has a lot of articles related to the Linux kernel and its relationship with GNUdalam GNU project. Linux Magazine prints generally have a cover disc that contains software or even a complete Linux distribution.
Although Linux is generally available free of charge, several large companies undergoing business model which consists of sales, support and contributions to Linux and free software, including Dell, IBM, HP, Sun Microsystems, Novell, and Red Hat. Free software license which is used to explicitly accommodate the commercialization of Linux; the relationship between Linux and individual vendors may be seen as a symbiosis. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially to business users. Some companies offer a business version of their Linux distribution, which include support for the packages are not free and the tools to manage a large number of installations or to ease administrative tasks. Another business model is to provide free software to hardware sales.
Programming in Linux
Most Linux distribution supports many programming languages. Collection of tools for building applications and operating system programs commonly found in the GNU toolchain, which consists of the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and GNU build system. GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C + +, Java, and Fortran. The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled by GCC. Compiler not free (proprietary) for Linux include the Intel C + + Compiler and IBM XL C / C + + Compiler.
Most distributions also has support for Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic programming languages. Examples of programming languages that are not common, but still get support on Linux, among others, is C # with the Mono project, sponsored by Novell, and Scheme. A number of Java Virtual Machine and equipment in the way the Linux developers including Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as open source projects like Kaffe. The two main frameworks for developing graphical applications on Linux are GNOME and KDE. These projects are based on GTK + and Qt. Both support a variety of programming languages. Integrated development environment for there is Anjuta, Code:: Blocks, Eclipse, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans, and Omnis Studio while the long text editor available is Vimdan Emacs.
Use
Most Linux distribution designed for general use on the computer desk and servers, but there is a distribution which is devoted to the purpose and the different environments that depend on computer architecture support, Embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a region or a specific language, specific user groups, support real time applications, or a particular desktop environment. Some distributions even include only free software. Today there are about three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distribution became popular for general use.
Linux is an operating system that is widely ported. The Linux kernel was originally designed only for Intel 80386 microprocessors, the Linux kernel now has roads on a variety of computer architectures, among others, in the hand-held ARM-based iPAQ, IBM System z9 mainframe computer, mobile phone in the form of equipment to supercomputers. There is a distribution which is devoted to a small number of architecture. ELKS kernel fork can run on the microprocessor 16-bit Intel 8086 or Intel 80286, while the μClinux kernel fork can run on systems that do not have a memory management unit.
Computer desk
Although there are still shortcomings in terms of porting Linux to some software Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows for domains such as desktop publishing and professional audio, applications roughly the same as applications for Mac and Windows is available on Linux.
Most Linux distributions provide a program to see a list of thousands of free software that has been tested and configured for a specific distribution. These free programs can be downloaded and installed with a single mouse click and a digital signature to ensure that no one has added a virus atauspyware to those programs.
Many popular free software in Windows such as Pidgin, Mozilla Firefox, OpenOffice.org and the GIMP. The amount paid in the Linux software is also increasing rapidly as the Adobe Flash Player, Acrobat Reader, Matlab, Nero Burning ROM, Opera, RealPlayer, and Skype. In the animation and visual effects, there is also software on Linux as well as Windows like Autodesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake. CrossOver is a paid software-based open source Wine project that can be running an older version of Microsoft Office and Adobe Photoshop. Microsoft Office 2007 and Adobe Photoshop CS3 is known to run
Copyrights and trademarks
Linux kernel and most GNU software use the GNU General Public License (GPL) as the base license. GPL requires anyone who distributes the Linux kernel must make the source code (and any modification of it) available to users with the same criteria. In 1997, Linus Torvalds stated, "Making the GPL-based Linux really is the best thing I ever did." Another important component in the Linux system is allowed to use a license other than GPL; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), GPL variant more moderate, and the X Window System uses the MIT License.
Linus Torvalds has stated to a general audience that he would not move the Linux kernel license that is currently using the GPL version 2 to GPL version 3, which ditembangkan in mid-2007, by reason of some provision contained in the new license prohibits the use of software in management Digital rights (UK: Digital rights management).
Research conducted in 2001 against Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that the distribution of such software comprises 30 million lines of code. By using the algorithm of constructive cost model (UK: Constructive Cost Model), the study estimates that such distributions takes about eight thousand years of work to develop it. According to the study, if all elements of the software were developed by conventional means in the sense that as the software is closed, the development of these distributions will cost 1.08 billion dollars (base year 2000 dollar value) to be developed in the United States.
Most of the code (71%) are written using the C programming language, but many other languages are also involved such as C + +, Assembly, Perl, Python, Fortran, and various other scripting languages. More than half of all code is licensed under the GPL. Linux kernel itself consists of 2.4 million lines of code, or about 8% of the total.
Other studies produced similar analysis of the Debian GNU / Linux version 4.0. Distributions consist of more than 283 million lines of code, and the study estimates the cost of the necessary development of 5.4 billion euros if developed as a closed Our leading devices.
In the United States, Linux is a trademark (SN: 1916230) owned by Linus Torvalds. Linux is listed as "computer operating system programs for computer use and operation". The trademark was registered after an incident in which a forger named William R Della Croce Jr. began sending letters to the distributors of Linux and Linux is a trademark megklaim hakmiliknya and demanded royalties as much as 10% of them. The Linux distributors began to push for a genuine trademark given to Linus Torvalds. Linux trademark licensing is now under the supervision of the Linux Mark Institute.
Linux Distribution
There are many Linux distributions (better known as distributions) are made by individuals, groups, or other institutions. Each program included with the system and additional application programs, in addition to include a program to install the whole system on the computer (the installer program).
Core in every distribution of Linux is the kernel, a collection of programs from the GNU project (or projects), shell (shell), and aturcara utilities such as libraries (libraries), compiler, danpenyunting (editors). Most systems also include aturcara and non-GNU utilities. However, these utilities can be separated and UNIX-style systems are still available. Some examples are aturcara and utility of the BSD and system graphs-X (X-Window System). X provides a graphical interface (GUI) that are common to Linux.
Examples of Linux distributions:
Ubuntu and its derivatives: Sabily (Ubuntu Muslim Edition), Kubuntu, Xubuntu, Edubuntu, GoBuntu, Gnewsense, ubuntuCE
SuSE
Fedora
BackTrack
Mandriva
Slackware
Debian
PCLinuxOS
Knoppix
Xandros
Sabayon
CentOS
Red Hat
ClearOS
ChromeOS
Application of the Linux operating system
Linux users, who generally do their own install and configuration of the system, are more likely to understand the technology than users of Microsoft Windows or Mac OS. They are often called hacker or geek. But the stereotype is increasingly reduced with increasing user-friendly nature and the growing breadth of Linux distribution users. Linux has made a pretty good achievement in the server computer market and special-purpose computer, such as image rendering engine and a web server. Linux is also gaining in popularity in the desktop computer market.
Linux is a principle to a combination of LAMP-server program, short for Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl / PHP / Python. LAMP has achieved widespread popularity among Web developers.
Linux is also often used as the operating system embeded. Linux procurement costs low allows its use in equipment such as the Simputer, a low-cost computer that is aimed at low-income population in developing countries.
With desktop environments like KDE and GNOME, Linux offers a user interface more like the Apple Macintosh or Microsoft Windows instead of a text line interfaces such as Unix. Therefore, more graphics program can be found on Linux that offers a variety of functions that exist in commercial utility.
Markets as well as ease of use
Currently, Linux is at first only an operating system that is used by computer enthusiasts, has become the system easier to use (user-friendly), equipped with a graphical interface and the availability of a wide range of applications that are more similar to other operating systems, rather than merely Unix command line. However, this impression has led to much criticism, including from supporters of Linux. They argue that Linux and free program project has yet to reach factor "kemudahanan in the use of" satisfactory. The question of ease of Linux compared to Windows or Macintosh is still an issue of heated debate. Linux on the computer market segment table is still smaller but growing. Institute for Market According to IDC, Linux is a big market in 2002 was 25% in the server segment, and 2.8% in the personal computer market segment.
For those who are accustomed to using Windows or Macintosh, Linux may seem more difficult, this is because the difference in doing various computer work. And again, the user needs to replace the programs that they use with other programs as a substitute when the program was not found in Linux (or the options are somewhat limited, such as computer games). Another factor is the nature keraguraguan users to release their usual operating system they use (many users are still using Windows). In addition, most new computers have been equipped with the Windows operating system ready for use (preinstalled). These factors led to a rather slow growth of Linux.
However, the advantages of Linux as a low cost, safer securities, and not rely on the vendor, has increased the use of a widespread among corporations and offices. In this situation, the obstacles mentioned above can be reduced since only the application / utility that is of limited use, as well as administration and configuration of the computer (administration) is controlled by a group of IT experts work a little.
There are various studies carried out limited costs and kemudahanan Linux. Relevantive (an institute based in Berlin, which specializes in the research institutes of ke'mudahan'an programs, as well as web services) have made the conclusion bahawa dapatpakai's Linux on the job by using a computer desk is almost the same as Windows XP. However, the study by IDC (funded by Microsoft) claims that Linux includes the cost of ownership (Total Cost of Ownership) is higher than Windows.
Linux is also often criticized for penembangannya schedule unpredictable. Directly, causing interest in the use of Linux in the Enterprise user layer is smaller than other operating systems (Source: Marcinkowski, 2003). In addition, various choices of Linux distributions are pretty much also is said to confuse the consumer, and vendor programs.
Installation
Linux is a difficult installation process is often a barrier for new users, but this process has now become easier. With the acceptance of Linux by several major manufacturers of personal computers, computer installed (built up) with ready-made Linux distributions currently available. In addition, there is also a Linux distribution that can be run (boot) directly from optical disc (CD) without the need to be installed to the hard disk (hard disk), this is known as the Live CD. Example in the form of Live CD distributions adalahKnoppix / Gnoppix, Kubuntu / Ubuntu and Gentoo. Currently almost all Linux distributions provide a version of the Live CD for its products. ISO image to optical disc for Linux distributions usually can be downloaded from the Internet, burned onto CDs, and can then be used as a CD that is ready for the boot process. Even the ISO image to some distros can be run directly without the need to burn into a CD / DVD.
Installing Linux is also the installation of the suite, which is where the installation will automatically install standard programs, such as MP3 players, Office Suite, and image processing.
Configuration
Linux configuration settings and applications on it much was done through a text file in the directory / etc. In further developments, utilities such as Linuxconf and GNOME System Tools facilitate this work through the graphical interface. Nevertheless, the command line (command line) remains the most commonly used.
Support
Support for Linux is usually obtained through a peer (in this context means a linux user group / KPLI) - other Linux users on the Internet forums, IRC, newsgroups danmailing list. Linux User Group (LUG, the Linux Users Group) has been established around the world to help local users, new users and experienced users. In Indonesia, the group joined in KPLI KPLI areas such as Jakarta, Bandung KPLI, KPLI NTB and many more. Assistance including installation, use, procurement and promoting the development of Linux systems.
Official support Linux in Indonesia can be obtained at the Linux User Group (LUG) Indonesia or http://linux.or.id or http://www.infolinux.or.id
Commercial support for Linux distributions in general using a business model by providing technical support. Third party support is also available.
The scale of the Linux development effort
A study (More Than a Gigabuck: estimating GNU / Linux 's Size [2]) against Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million lines of source code (''source lines of code (SLOC )''). Using the COCOMO cost model of this study show that this distribution requires development time as much as 8,000 years, when the software was developed by conventional proprietary means. And will spend approximately 1:08 billion dollars (2000 dollars) to be developed in the United States.
The majority of the code (71%) is written in C, but many other languages are used, including C + + shell scripts, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Fortran and Python.
Approximately half of the licensed code under the GPL.
The Linux kernel contains 2.4 million lines of code, or about 8% of the total code that is used in a distribution / distro. This shows that the majority of Linux distributions consist of code that is not contained in the Linux Kernel.
"GNU / Linux"
GNU stands for GNU's Not Unix.
Caused utility-utility from the GNU free operating system project - without this Linux system will not resemble Unix system in a user's perspective - Richard Stallman of the GNU / FSFmemohon to a combination system (GNU Project and the Linux kernel), referred to as "GNU / Linux". Users of the Linux distributions Debian project is more likely to use the name. Most users more easily using the term "Linux".
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